Concentrated solar power

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Solar power is concentrated (also called concentrated solar power , centralized solar , and CSP ) system generates solar power by using a mirror or lens to focus a large area of ​​sunlight, or solar thermal energy, into a small area. Electricity is generated when concentrated light is converted into heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electric generator or thermochemical reaction power (experimental in 2013).

CSP has a total installed capacity of 4,815 MW world by 2016, up from 354 MW in 2005. By 2017, Spain accounts for nearly half of the world's capacity, at 2,300 MW, making it the world leader in CSP. The United States follows with 1,740 MW. Interest is also important in North Africa and the Middle East, as well as India and China. The global market has been dominated by parabolic-trough plants, which account for 90% of CSP plants at one point. The largest CSP project in the world is the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility (392 MW) in the United States (which uses solar tower technology), the Mojave Solar Project (354 MW) in the United States (which uses parabolic troughs).

In most cases, current CSP technology can not compete on price with photovoltaic solar panels, which have experienced great growth in recent years due to the fall in prices and much smaller operating costs. CSPs generally require large amounts of direct solar radiation, and their energy generation drops dramatically with cloud cover. This is in contrast to photovoltaics, which can generate electricity also from diffuse radiation. However, the advantage of CSP systems over PV is that certain CSP technologies can store energy in the form of a molten salt, allowing these plants to continue generating electricity after sunset and making them partly deployable. This is very valuable in places where there is already high PV penetration, such as California.

By 2017, the CSP represents less than 2% of the installed capacity of solar power plants worldwide. However, in recent years the CSP factory price decline makes this technology compete with other basic load power plants using fossils and nuclear fuel even in high humidity and dusty atmospheres at sea level, such as the United Arab Emirates. The base load CSP rate in the very dry Atacama region of Chile reaches below Ã, Â ¢ 5.0/kWh at auction by 2017.

Video Concentrated solar power

Histori

A legend says that Archimedes used a "burning glass" to concentrate sunlight on the invading Roman fleet and drive them out of Syracuse. In 1973 a Greek scientist, Dr. Ioannis Sakkas, wondering if Archimedes could really destroy the Roman fleet in 212 BC, marched nearly 60 Greek sailors, each holding a square mirror culminating to capture the sunlight and directing them to the hidden tar silhouette of 49 m plywood ( 160 feet). The ship burns off after a few minutes; However, historians continue to doubt Archimedes's story.

In 1866, Auguste Mouchout used a parabolic trough to produce? steam for the first solar steam engine. The first patent for a solar collector was obtained by Italian Alessandro Battaglia in Genoa, Italy, in 1886. Over the following years, traders such as John Ericsson and Frank Shuman developed concentrated solar power for irrigation, refrig? rations, and locations. In 1913, Shuman completed a 55 parabolic solar thermal energy station in Maadi, Egypt for irrigation. The first solar system using mirror disks was built by Dr. R.H. Goddard, well known for his research on liquid-fuel rockets and writing articles in 1929 in which he asserted that all previous obstacles had been overcome.

Professor Giovanni Francia (1911-1980) designed and built the first concentrated solar power plant, which began operating in Sant'Ilario, near Genoa, Italy in 1968. The plant features a current concentrated solar power plant with a solar receiver in the center of the field solar collector. The plant was able to produce 1 MW with superheated steam at 100 bar and 500 Ã, Â ° C. 10 MW Solar One power tower was developed in Southern California in 1981, but parabolic technology from the nearby Solar Energy Generating System (SEGS) 1984, more applicable. SEGS 354 MW is the world's largest solar power plant, until the 390 MW Ivanpah power plant project reaches full power.

A pilot of 10 MW CSP power tower using steam in the receiver, Solar One, was converted into a 10 MW CSP power tower using molten salt as a receiving fluid and as a storage medium, Solar Two, was deactivated in 1999. Due to the success of Solar Two, a commercial power plant, called Solar Tres Power Tower, built in Spain, renamed Gemasolar Thermosolar Plant. The Gemasolar result has paved the way for the Crescent Dunes project. Ivanpah difficulties arise also because they do not consider the lessons about the benefits of heat storage. Solana in Arizona is 25% below the projected figure, Ivanpah in California, is at 40% below the projected figure in its first year of operation, but by 2017 it reaches over 90%. A slightly larger photovoltaic power plant, such as the 290 MW Solar Power Project Agua Caliente peaked at most to 741 GWh in 2014, compared to the Solana 280 MW that grew 719 GWh. Another operator, of 280 MW Genesis Solar, is projecting only 580 GWh of production and instead making 621 GWh by 2015.

CSP was initially treated as a competitor for photovoltaics, and Ivanpah was built without energy storage, although Solar One and Solar Two have incorporated several hours of thermal storage. By 2015 the commercial power of PV is sold to ¹ / ₃ of the recent CSP contract. However, increasingly, by 2015 CSP is bidding with 3 to 12 hours of thermal energy storage, making CSPs a form of solar energy that can be deployed. Thus, the more visible it competes with natural gas for its flexible and removable strength. With storage included, CSP is the cheapest form of removable diesel on a utility scale, about ten times cheaper than combining PV with batteries for storage.

Maps Concentrated solar power

Current technology

CSP is used to generate electricity (sometimes called solar thermoelectricity, usually generated through steam). Solar system technology is concentrated using a mirror or lens with a tracking system to focus a large area of ​​sunlight into a small area. Concentrated light is then used as heat or as a heat source for conventional solar thermoelectricity. Solar concentrators used in CSP systems can often also be used to provide industrial processes of heating or cooling, such as in solar AC.

The concentrated technology exists in four optical types, namely parabolic troughs, disks, Fresnel linear reflector concentrates, and solar power towers. Although simple, this solar concentrator is quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration. For example, the parabolic-trough concentration gives about ¹ / ₃ of the theoretical maximum for the receiving angle of the design, ie, for the same overall tolerance for system. Near the theoretical maximum can be achieved by using a more complex concentrator based on nonimaging optics.

Different types of concentrators produce different peak temperatures and thus vary the thermodynamic efficiency, due to differences in the way they track the sun and focus light. The new innovation in CSP technology is the cutting edge system to be more and more cost-effective.

Parabolic trough

The parabolic trench consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light to a receiver placed along the reflection focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned just above the center of the parabolic mirror and filled with working fluid. The reflector follows the sun during the day by tracking along a single axis. A working fluid (eg a molten salt) is heated to 150-350 ° C (302-662 ° F) when it flows through a receiver and is then used as a heat source for a power generation system. The Trough system is the most advanced CSP technology. Solar Energy Systems (SEGS) in California, the world's first commercial parabolic plant, Acciona's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City, Nevada, and Andasol, Europe's first representative parabolic representative, along with Plataforma Solar de AlmerÃa SSPS- DCS test facility in Spain.

The solar power tower

A solar power tower consists of an array of dual-axis tracking reflectors (heliostats) that center the sunlight on a central receiver above the tower; the receiver contains a heat transfer fluid, which may comprise water or aqueous salt. Optical tower of solar power is the same as the circular Fresnel reflector. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 500-1000 Â ° C (773-1,273 Â ° K or 932-1,832 Â ° F) and then used as a heat source for a power plant or energy storage system. The advantage of a solar tower is the adjustable reflector instead of the entire tower. The development of power towers is less sophisticated than the channel system, but they offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capabilities.

The Solar Two in Daggett, California and CESA-1 at Plataforma Solar de Almeria Almeria, Spain, is the most representative demonstration plant. The Planta Solar 10 (PS10) in Sanlucar la Mayor, Spain, is the world's first commercial scale scale solar power tower in the world. The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in the Mojave Desert, is the largest CSP facility in the world, and uses three electric towers. Ivanpah produces only 0.652 TWh (63%) of energy from diesel, and the other 0.388 TWh (37%) is produced by natural gas combustion.

Closed trough

This design encapsulates the solar thermal system in a greenhouse like a greenhouse. Greenhouses create a protected environment to withstand elements that can negatively impact the reliability and efficiency of the solar thermal system. A lightly curved reflective solar mirror is hung from the greenhouse ceiling by a cable. A single-axis tracking system puts a mirror to take the optimal amount of sunlight. The mirror focuses the sunlight and focuses it on stationary steel pipes, also depending on the greenhouse structure. Water is carried along the pipe, which is boiled to produce steam when intense solar radiation is applied. Protecting the mirror from the wind allows them to reach higher temperatures and prevent dust from forming in the mirror.

GlassPoint Solar, the company that created the Enclosed Trough design, stated that the technology can generate heat for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) of about $ 5 per million british thermal units in a sunny region, compared to between $ 10 and $ 12 for other conventional thermal diesel technologies.

Fresnel Reflector

The Fresnel reflector is made of many thin, flat mirror strips to concentrate sunlight into the tube through which the working fluid is pumped. The flat mirror allows the surface to be more reflective in the same amount of space than the parabolic reflector, thus capturing more available sunlight, and they are much cheaper than parabolic reflectors. Fresnel Reflector can be used in any size of CSP.

Fresnel reflectors are sometimes perceived as technologies with worse output than other methods. The cost efficiency of this model is what causes some people to use this over others with higher output values. Several new models of Fresnel Reflector with Ray Tracing capability have started to be tested and initially proven to produce higher output than the standard version.

Dish Stirling

A Stirling engine system or dish machine consists of a stand-alone parabolic reflector that focuses light onto the receiver placed in the reflector focal point. The reflector tracks the Sun along two axes. The working fluid in the receiver is heated to 250-700 ° C (482-1,292 ° F) and then used by the Stirling engine to generate power. The parabolic systems provide high efficiency solar-to-electricity (between 31% and 32%), and their capital properties provide scalability. The Stirling Energy Systems (SES), United Sun Systems (USS) and the application of Science International Corporation (SAIC) plates at UNLV, and Australian National University's Big Dish in Canberra, Australia are representative of this technology. The world record for solar power efficiency up to electricity was set at 31.25% by SES equipment at the National Solar Thermal Test Facility (NSTTF) in New Mexico on January 31, 2008, a cold and sunny day. According to the developer, Ripasso Energy, a Swedish company, by 2015 the Dish Sterling system tested in the Kalahari Desert in South Africa shows a 34% efficiency. Installing SES in Maricopa, Phoenix is ​​the largest Dishling Dish power installation in the world until it is sold to United Sun Systems. Furthermore, a larger part of the installation has been moved to China as part of enormous energy demand.

src: inhabitat.com

Thermal enhanced thermal oil recovery

The heat from the sun can be used to provide the steam that is used to make the heavy oil less viscous and easier to pump. Solar towers and parabolic troughs can be used to provide steam that is used directly so that no generator is required and no electricity is generated. The thermal enhanced recovery of thermal oil can extend the life of oilfields with very thick oil that was previously uneconomical to pump.

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CSP with hot energy storage

In a CSP plant that includes storage, solar energy is first used to heat liquid salts or stored synthetic oils providing heat/heat energy at high temperatures in isolated tanks. Then hot molten salt (or oil) is used in a steam generator to generate steam to produce electricity with a steam turbo generator as needed. So the available solar energy during the day is only used to generate electricity over time as demand as a power plant or solar power plant. The thermal storage capacity is shown in the power generation hours at the capacity of the name plate. Unlike solar PV or storage-free CSPs, a power plant from a solar thermal generator can be delivered and self-sustaining like a coal/gas power plant, but without pollution.

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Worldwide implementation

Commercial deployment of CSP plants began in 1984 in the US with the SEGS plant. The last SEGS plant was completed in 1990. From 1991 to 2005, no CSP factory was built anywhere in the world. The global installed CSP capacity increased almost tenfold between 2004 and 2013 and grew an average of 50 percent per year over the last five years. By 2013, worldwide installed capacity increased by 36% or nearly 0.9 gigawatts (GW) to over 3.4 GW. Spain and the United States remain a global leader, while the number of countries with installed CSPs is increasing but the rapid decline in solar PV prices, policy changes and the global financial crisis halted most of the development in these countries. The year 2014 is the best year for CSP but is followed by a rapid decline with just one major factory completed in the world by 2016. There is an important trend towards developing countries and areas with high solar radiation with several large factories being built by 2017.

CSPs are also increasingly competing with cheaper solar photovoltaic and with concentrator photovoltaic (CPV), the same fast growing technology as CSP is best suited for high diesel insulation areas. In addition, a new CPV/CSP solar hybrid system has been proposed recently.

src: helioscsp.com

Efficiency

Demi kesederhanaan, orang dapat berasumsi bahwa kerugian hanya bersifat radiasi (asumsi yang adil untuk suhu tinggi), sehingga untuk area reradiating A dan emisivitas ${\ displaystyle \ epsilon}  ÂÂ$ menerapkan hasil hukum Stefan-Boltzmann:

${\ displaystyle Q _ {\ mathrm {lost}} = A \ epsilon \ sigma T_ {H} ^ {4}}  ÂÂ$

Sederhanakan persamaan ini dengan mempertimbangkan optik sempurna ( ${\ displaystyle \ eta _ {\ mathrm {Optics}}}  ÂÂ$ = 1), mengumpulkan dan meregister area yang sama dan absorptivitas maksimum dan emisivitas ( ${\ displaystyle \ alpha}  ÂÂ$ = 1, ${\ displaystyle \ epsilon}  ÂÂ$ = 1) kemudian mengganti dalam persamaan pertama berikan

${\ displaystyle \ eta = \ kiri (1 - {\ frac {\ sigma T_ {H} ^ {4}} {IC}} \ kanan) \ cdot \ left ( 1 - {\ frac {T ^ {0}} {T_ {H}}} \ right)}  ÂÂ$

The graph shows that the overall efficiency does not increase with the receiver temperature. Although the efficiency of the heat engine (Carnot) increases with higher temperatures, the efficiency of the receiver is not. In contrast, the efficiency of the receiver decreases, because the amount of energy that can not be absorbed (Q _lost ) grows by the fourth power as a function of temperature. Therefore, there is maximum temperature that can be achieved. When the zero recipient efficiency (blue curve in the figure below), T _max is: _{          T                                    m             a              x                                      =                           Â (                ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ...
     Â        I        ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ, C        ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ,                ?        ÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂÂ,                       Â )                           Â  <Â> <25>                            < {\ displaystyle T _ {\ mathrm {max}} = \ left {{frac {IC} {\ sigma}} \ right) ^ {0, 25}}  Â}

Ada suhu T _opt yang efisiensinya maksimum, yaitu ketika turunan efisiensi relatif terhadap suhu receiver adalah nol:

${\ displaystyle {\ frac {d \ eta} {dT_ {H}}} (T _ {\ mathrm {opt}}) = 0}  ÂÂ$

Akibatnya, ini membawa kita ke persamaan berikut:

${\ displaystyle T_ {opt} ^ {5} - (0.75T ^ {0}) T _ {\ mathrm {opt}} ^ {4} - {\ frac {T ^ {0} IC} {4 \ sigma}} = 0}  ÂÂ$

Solving this equation numerically allows us to obtain optimal process temperature according to the sun's concentration ratio ${\ displaystyle C}$ (the red curve in the image below)

Theoretical efficiency aside, the real-world experience of the CSP reveals a 25% -60% shortfall in projected production, a good part of which is due to the Carnot cycle loss practically not included in the above analysis.

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Cost

By 2017, the new CSP power plant is economically competitive with fossil fuels in certain areas, such as Chile, Australia, and the Middle East and North Africa Region (MENA). Nathaniel Bullard, a solar analyst at Bloomberg New Energy Finance, calculates that the cost of electricity at Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, a project contracted in 2009 and completed in 2014 in Southern California, will be lower than that of photovoltaic power and almost the same as it's from natural gas. However, due to the rapid decline in photovoltaic prices, in November 2011, Google announced that it would not invest further in the CSP project. Google has invested US $ 168 million for BrightSource. IRENA has published in June 2012 a series of studies entitled: "Renewable Energy Cost Analysis". The CSP study shows the cost of building and operating a CSP plant. Costs are expected to decrease, but there are insufficient installations to set the learning curve clearly.

In 2012, there are 1.9 GW CSP installed, with 1.8 GW being a parabolic trough. The US Department of Energy published a list of the latest CSP power plants at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) under a contract from SolarPACES, a network of international CSP researchers and industry experts. In 2017, there are 5 GW CSPs installed globally, with most in Spain at 2.3 GW, and US at 1.3 GW.

At the 2016 Chilean auction, SolarReserve offers $ 63/MWh (Ã, Â ¢ 6.3/kWh) for 24-hour non-subsidized CSP power, competing against other types such as the LNG gas turbine. By 2017, prices for both signed bids and contracts fell rapidly by 50% from 9.4 cents per kWh in May, to below 5 cents in October. In May, Electric Dubai and Air (DEWA) received an offer at 9.4 cents per kWh. In August DEWA signed a contract with Saudi-based ACWA Power at 7.3 cents per kWh. In September, SolarReserve signed a contract to supply a night peak in South Australia at 6.1 cents per kWh, lower than the price of natural gas. In October, 2017, SolarReserve bid to Chile 2017 Auctions at 5 cents per kWh.

As of November 2017, prices in MENA (Middle East and North Africa) are at 7 cents per kWh or lower by ACWA Power. The cost of capital has fallen by 50% in the last five years.

src: www.trec-uk.org.uk

Incentives

Spanish

Until 2012, thermal-power plants initially qualify for payment of feed-in payments (article 2 RD 661/2007), if the system capacity does not exceed the following limits:

• The system is listed in the system list before 29 September 2008: 500 MW for the solar thermal system.
• The system is registered after September 29, 2008 (for PV only).

Capacity limits for different system types are redefined during the quarterly review of application conditions (art. 5 RD 1578/2008, Annex III RD 1578/2008). Prior to the end of the application period, market caps specified for each type of system are published on the website of the Ministry of Industry, Tourism and Trade (art 5 RD 1578/2008).

Since 27 January 2012, Spain has suspended acceptance of new projects for feed-in-tariff. The currently accepted projects are not affected, except that a 6% tax on feed-in-tariff has been adopted, effectively reducing feed-in-tariff.

Australia

At the federal level, under the Large Scale Renewable Energy Target (LRET), which operates under the Renewable Energy Renewal Act of 2000, large scale solar thermal power plants from accredited RET power plants may be entitled to generating large-scale certificates (LGCs) ). These certificates may then be sold and transferred to the responsible entity (usually the seller of electricity) to fulfill their obligations under this tradable certificate scheme. However, since this law is a neutral technology in its operations, it tends to support more established RE technologies with lower generation costs, such as large-scale terrestrial wind, than solar thermal and CSP. At the country level, the legislation of feed-in renewable energy is usually limited by the maximum generation capacity in kWp, and is open only to micro or medium scale and in some instances only open to solar PV (photovoltaic) plants. This means that large-scale CSP projects will not be eligible for feed-in incentive payments in many State and Territory jurisdictions.

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Future

A study conducted by Greenpeace International, the Association of Solar Hot Springs Europe, and the SolarPACES International Energy Agency group investigated the potential and future of concentrated solar power. The study found that concentrated solar power can reach up to 25% of the world's energy needs by 2050. The increase in investment will be from 2 billion euros worldwide to 92.5 billion euros in that time period. Spain is a leader in concentrated solar power technology, with over 50 government-approved projects in progress. Also, exporting the technology, further increasing the share of technology in energy around the world. Because this technology works best with high insolation areas (solar radiation), experts predict the largest growth in places like Africa, Mexico and the southwestern United States. This suggests that a nitrate-based thermal storage system (calcium, potassium, sodium,...) will make the CSP plant more profitable. This study examines three different results for this technology: no increase in CSP technology, continued investment as happened in Spain and the US, and ultimately the real potential of CSPs without constraint on its growth. The findings from the third section are shown in the table below:

Finally, this study recognizes how technology for CSPs is increasing and how this will result in drastic price reductions by 2050. It is estimated that the decline from the current range of EUR0.23-0.15/kwh to EUR0.14-0.10/kwh.

The EU looks into the development of a $ 774 billion Solar-based solar power plant based on the Sahara region using CSP technology known as Desertec, to create a "new carbon-free network linking Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. ". The plan is supported primarily by German industrialists and forecasts the production of 15% of European powers by 2050. Morocco is a major partner in Desertec and since it only has 1% of EU electricity consumption, it can generate more than enough energy for the whole country with a surplus of energy great for shipping to Europe. Algeria has the largest desert area, and the Algerian private company, Cevital, signs up to Desertec. With its vast deserts (the highest CSP potential in the Mediterranean and the Middle East ~ about 170 TWh/year) and its strategic geographic location near Europe, Algeria is one of the major countries to ensure the success of the Desertec project. In addition, with abundant natural gas reserves in the Algerian desert, this will strengthen Algeria's technical potential in obtaining a Solar-Hybrid Power Plant for a 24-hour power plant. Most participants are out of the way by the end of 2014.

Other organizations have estimated CSP to cost $ 0.06 (US)/kWh by 2015 due to increased efficiency and mass production equipment. That will make CSP as cheap as conventional. Investors such as venture capitalists Vinod Khosla expect CSP to continue to reduce costs and are actually cheaper than coal power after 2015.

In 2009, scientists at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and SkyFuel teamed up to develop a large curved metal sheet that has the potential to be 30% cheaper than today's best collectors of concentrated solar power by replacing glass-based models with silver sheets polymers that have the same performance as heavy mirror glass, but at a much lower cost and weight. It's also much easier to use and install. Glossy film uses multiple layers of polymer, with an inner layer of pure silver.

The designer of the telescope Roger Angel (Univ. Of Arizona) has turned his attention to CPV, and is a partner in a company called Rehnu. Angel uses ball-centered lenses with large telescope technology, but much cheaper materials and mechanisms, to create an efficient system.

Recent experiences with CSP technology in 2014-2015 at Solana in Arizona, and Ivanpah in Nevada show a large production deficit in power generation between 25% and 40% in the first years of operation. Manufacturers blame clouds and bad weather, but critics seem to think there's a tech problem. These problems cause utilities to pay inflated prices for wholesale electricity, and threaten the long-term viability of the technology. As the cost of photovoltaic continues to decline, many think that CSP has a limited future in utility scale electricity production.

Very large scale solar power plant

There are several proposals for gigawatt size, large scale solar power plants. They include Euro-Mediterranean Desertec and Project Helios proposals in Greece (10 GW), both of which are now canceled. A 2003 study concluded that the world could generate 2,357,840 TWh annually from large scale solar power plants using 1% of each of the world's deserts. Total consumption worldwide is 15,223 TWh/year (in 2003). Projects of gigawatt size will be the standard single-size plant array. The largest single plant operating is 370 MW Ivanpah Solar. In 2012, BLM provided 97,921,069 hectares (39,627,251 hectares) of land in the southwestern United States for solar power projects, enough for between 10,000 and 20,000 GW.

Matched site

Locations with the highest direct radiation are dry, at high altitudes, and located in the tropics. These locations have a higher CSP potential than areas with less sunlight.

Abandoned opencast mines, moderate hillside and crater depression can be advantageous in terms of CSP electric towers because electric towers can be located on inseparable soils with salt storage tanks.

src: www.me.gatech.edu

Effects on wildlife

Insects may be attracted to the bright light caused by concentrated solar technology, and as a result the hunting bird can be killed if the bird flies near the point where light is being focused. It can also affect birds of prey that hunt birds. Federal federal officials have begun to call these power towers "mega traps" for wildlife.

According to a rigorous report, in just over six months, in fact only 133 charred birds were counted. By focusing no more than four mirrors in one place in the air during standby, at the Solar Energy Project of the Sun Dunes, within three months, the death rate drops to zero.

src: rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org

See also

src: www.dlr.de

References

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External links

• Concentrating Solar Power Utility
• NREL Concentrating Solar Program
• Plataforma Solar de Almeria, CSP research center
• ISFOC (Institute of Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems)

Source of the article : Wikipedia